Introduction
A relatively large amount of research has been done into motivation in sport. The point has been reached where specific recommendations can be made for practical implementation. Further research is needed to increase the precision and scope of implementation but what is presented here should give benefits. This document is primarily aimed at coaches but could also be used by researchers as a source for investigating the effectiveness of intervention strategies.
Current model of motivation
The model used as a basis for this document starts with self determination theory. It is theorised that individuals have three psychological needs relevant to this discussion:
1) Competence - the level of mastery or sense of being effective when interacting with the environment
2) Autonomy - the level of control over actions or choice in participation
3) Relatedness - behaviours that are promoted, modeled, or valued by significant others (individuals) who the player feels, or wants to feel, attached to
The degree to which a motivating factor is associated with the above three terms gives a scale of motivational states (from high to low):
- 1) Intrinsic motivation (IM)
- or knowledge - satisfaction gained while learning, exploring or trying to understand
- or accomplishment - pleasure from attempting to accomplish or creating something
- or stimulation - activity causes pleasant sensations associated mainly with the senses
- Extrinsic motivation (EM)
- 2) integrated - although the activity is not intrinsicly motivating, it has been internalised by the participant as a harmonious and worthwhile part of what they are trying to achieve
- 3) identified - not intrinsicly motivating but identified as important and valued by the participant
- 4) introjected - the participant has internally justified participation but does not feel much choice in the matter
- 5) external - motivation is regulated by rewards or constraints
- 6) Amotivation (AM) - lack of motivation
Much research has associated intrinsic motivation (IM) with positive outcomes such as:
- willingness to participate and train
- adaptive behavaviour (specifically mastery of skills)
- flow states
- concentration
- improved coping strategies
- positive emotions
- sportpersonship
with extrinsic motivation (EM) or amotivation (AM) usually unassociated or negatively associated with positive outcomes.
Such is the body of evidence that we can be confident in recommending that IM be the main goal while structuring training and participation. However, recent research has found that IM is probably insufficient in the specific case of hard training where the sessions can be boring, physically/psychology uncomfortable or painful, or slow in generating improvement. In these cases it appears integrated or indentified EM (but not the other types or AM) are necessary to support:
- effort
- intensity
- skill learning
- practice mastery
- persistence/direction
The role of goal orientation
This current document bases goal orientation theory on the model of task versus ego goal disposition. Task goals focus on improving a characteristic of the player (e.g. skill, physical capability) with reference to the player's current state. Conversely, ego goals set a target relative to external factors such as beating a particular individual or team in competition. Task goals are internal to the player whereas ego goals are external.
The goal disposition (type of goals usually attempted) of the player and training environment appears to have a close association with the motivation theory already discussed.
Task goals appear to support IM and have similiar positive outcomes whereas ego goals appear to be unrelated to motivation or even shift motivation to EM and AM. Ego goals appear to be potentially undermining, especially in situations where the player perceives their current ability to be low. In such a situation the player can follow an 'excuse' based behavioural pattern where they do not try hard so they have an excuse that is related to their effort instead of ability. In contrast, task goal orientation appears to give better coping strategies and avoids such negative behaviour.
Although long and short term player expectations (e.g. 'One day I want to win an olympic medal) could be viewed as inherent ego goals, they can be re-interpreted as the task goals needed to achieve the expectation or dream.
Procedures
Based on the above theory we can recommend procedures to improve participation and training. We seek the follow objectives:
1) Create an intrinsic motivation environment for participation and for general elite training
2) Shift to integrated and identified extrinsic motivation for hard training sessions (for elite players)
To acheive these objectives we recommend the following:
- Remember that the training environment is important. Coaches need to set the motivation agenda through their actions and by what they say
- Always involve players in goal setting (promotes autonomy which underpins the positive IM or EM motivation)
- Use verbal persuasion to change beliefs. If the player believes it, they are more likely to do it
- Individualise training (promotes competence and autonomy)
- Set challenging but realistic goals (this stimulates IM for achievement and for knowledge)
- Have a positive training relationship (80% positive feedback), but do confuse this with allowing easy training. Strict but fair where necessary
- For integrated and identified EM to support hard training use the following:
- self-referenced goals such as reminding player of number of days until a big tournament or the careful use of public notice board display of achievements
- verbally challenge the athlete with questions that remind them of their long term goals (e.g. what are we fighting for?)
- increase the amount of control by the coach when necessary
Assessment
Every few months it is useful to have a player complete the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) so that the player's motivation can be measured.
References
1) Model, E.D. Motivation and practice behaviors in elite level sport: A Self-Determination perspective. (In Review, Journal of Sport Behaviour. August 25th 2004)
2) 'Handbook of Sport Psychology' (motivation section), R Singer, H Hausenblas, C Janelle, ISBN 0-471-37995-6
